Closures

Kōdo supports closures (anonymous functions) that can capture variables from their enclosing scope. The compiler uses lambda lifting to transform closures into regular functions at compile time.

Basic Closures

A closure is defined with |params| { body } syntax:

let double = |x: Int| -> Int { x * 2 }

Passing Named Functions

Named functions can be passed where a function type is expected. This is the most reliable way to use higher-order functions:

fn square(x: Int) -> Int {
    return x * x
}

fn apply(f: (Int) -> Int, x: Int) -> Int {
    return f(x)
}

fn main() {
    let result: Int = apply(square, 4)
    print_int(result)  // 16
}

Function Types

Function types use the (ParamTypes) -> ReturnType syntax:

fn double(x: Int) -> Int {
    return x * 2
}

fn apply_twice(f: (Int) -> Int, x: Int) -> Int {
    let once: Int = f(x)
    return f(once)
}

fn main() {
    let result: Int = apply_twice(double, 5)
    print_int(result)  // 20
}

Closures with Built-in Methods

Closures work seamlessly with built-in list methods like .map(), .filter(), and .fold():

fn main() {
    let nums: List<Int> = list_new()
    list_push(nums, 1)
    list_push(nums, 2)
    list_push(nums, 3)

    let doubled: List<Int> = nums.map(|x: Int| -> Int { x * 2 })
    let sum: Int = doubled.fold(0, |acc: Int, x: Int| -> Int { acc + x })
    print_int(sum)  // 12
}

Closures work with both built-in list methods (.map(), .filter(), .fold()) and custom higher-order functions. Both expression-body ({ x * 2 }) and return-body ({ return x * 2 }) closures are supported.

How Lambda Lifting Works

Lambda lifting is a compiler technique that eliminates closures by converting them to regular functions:

1. Capture analysis: The compiler identifies free variables in the closure body
2. Lifting: The closure becomes a top-level function with captured variables as extra parameters
3. Call site transformation: Where the closure is created, the captured values are passed as arguments

This means closures have zero runtime overhead compared to regular function calls — there is no heap-allocated closure object.

Complete Example

module closures_demo {
    meta {
        purpose: "Demonstrate closures and higher-order functions",
        version: "0.1.0"
    }

    fn double(x: Int) -> Int {
        return x * 2
    }

    fn increment(x: Int) -> Int {
        return x + 1
    }

    fn apply(f: (Int) -> Int, x: Int) -> Int {
        return f(x)
    }

    fn apply_twice(f: (Int) -> Int, x: Int) -> Int {
        let once: Int = f(x)
        return f(once)
    }

    fn main() {
        // Named function as argument
        let result: Int = apply(double, 5)
        print_int(result)  // 10

        // Apply twice
        let result2: Int = apply_twice(increment, 0)
        print_int(result2)  // 2

        // Closures with built-in methods
        let nums: List<Int> = list_new()
        list_push(nums, 4)
        print_int(apply(double, list_get(nums, 0)))  // 8
    }
}

Closure Ownership Analysis

As of v0.4.0, the compiler performs ownership analysis on closure captures. Closures that capture variables from their enclosing scope are subject to the same ownership rules as regular code. The compiler tracks what each closure captures and enforces move/borrow rules on those captures.

Capture After Move (E0281)

A closure cannot capture a variable that has already been moved:

fn main() {
    let data: String = "hello"
    let f1 = |x: Int| -> Int { println(data); return x }
    // data was captured (moved) by f1
    let f2 = |x: Int| -> Int { println(data); return x }
    // ERROR E0281: variable `data` was moved and cannot be captured by this closure
}

Capture Moves Variable (E0282)

When a closure captures a non-Copy variable by move, that variable becomes unavailable in the enclosing scope:

fn main() {
    let data: String = "hello"
    let f = |x: Int| -> Int { println(data); return x }
    let result: String = data + " world"
    // ERROR E0282: closure captures `data` by move, making it unavailable after this point
}

Double Capture (E0283)

Two closures in the same scope cannot both capture the same non-Copy variable:

fn main() {
    let data: String = "hello"
    let f1 = |x: Int| -> Int { println(data); return x }
    let f2 = |x: Int| -> Int { println(data); return x }
    // ERROR E0283: variable `data` cannot be captured by two closures
}

Copy Types Are Fine

Primitive types (Int, Bool, Float64, Byte) are implicitly Copy and can be captured by any number of closures without restriction:

fn main() {
    let n: Int = 42
    let f1 = |x: Int| -> Int { return x + n }
    let f2 = |x: Int| -> Int { return x * n }
    // OK — Int is Copy, so n is not moved
}

Next Steps

• Generics — generic types and generic functions
• Modules and Imports — multi-file programs and the standard library
• Data Types and Pattern Matching — structs, enums, and match